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R EVIEW

Restrictive Covenants in Medicine in the United States

Disclosures: Disclosure forms are available with the article online.

11. American College of Surgeons. Statement on restrictive covenants. Accessed at www.facs.org/about-acs/statements/ restrictive-covenants/ on 11 July 2024. 12. Wilson BH, Marine JE, Marshall JJ. Restrictive covenants and non competes: an ACC advocacy journey. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2024;83:1100 1104. [PMID: 38479958] doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2024.02.002 13. Noll RG. “ Buyer power ” and economic policy. Antitrust Law Journal. 2005;72:589-624. 14. American Hospital Association. AHA comments on FTC proposed Non-Compete Clause Rule Letter. Accessed at www. aha.org/lettercomment/2023-02-22-aha-comments-ftc-proposed non-compete-clause-rule on 11 July 2024. 15. Garcia L. Lose-lose: noncompete agreements hurt doctors and patients. AAFP News Blog Fresh Perspectives. 2021. Accessed at www.aafp.org/news/blogs/freshperspectives/entry/20210303fp noncompete.html on 11 July 2024. 16. Sherman WF, Patel AH, Ross BJ, et al. The impact of a non compete clause on patient care and orthopaedic surgeons in the state of Louisiana: afraid of a little competition? Orthop Rev (Pavia). 2022;14:38404. [PMID: 36267544] doi:10.52965/001c.38404 17. Brown KJ, Flora SR, Brown MK. Noncompete clauses in applied behavior analysis: a prevalence and practice impact survey. Behav Anal Pract. 2020;13:924-938. [PMID: 33269202] doi:10.1007/s40617 020-00469-0 18. Patel RS, Bachu R, Adikey A, et al. Factors related to physician burn out and its consequences: a review. Behav Sci (Basel). 2018;8:98. [PMID: 30366419] doi:10.3390/bs8110098 19. Paasche-Orlow MK, Jacob DM, Hochhauser M, et al. National sur vey of Patients' Bill of Rights statutes. J Gen Intern Med. 2009;24:489 494. [PMID: 19189192] doi:10.1007/s11606-009-0914-z 20. Annas GJ. A.H.A. Bill of Rights. Trial. 1973;9:59-61. [PMID: 11662033] 21. Aaron DG, Emery AE. US Supreme Court limits on the power of US health agencies. JAMA. 2024;331:1441-1442. [PMID: 38506694] doi:10.1001/jama.2024.3723 22. Ryan LLC v. Federal Trade Commission , Civil Action No. 3:24-CV 00986-E (ND Tex 2024). 23. American Nurses Association. ANA comments on FTC proposed rule on non-compete clauses. Accessed at www.nursingworld.org/ 4942e4/globalassets/docs/ana/comment-letters/anacomments_ ftcproposedrule_noncompeteclauses_2023.pdf on 11 July 2024. 24. American Academy of Emergency Medicine. AAEM applauds FTC decision to ban non-compete clauses in healthcare. Accessed at www.aaem.org/news/aaem-applauds-ftc-decision-to-ban-non compete-clauses-in-healthcare/ on 11 July 2024.

Corresponding Author: Anand Prasad, MD, MBA, Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, UT Health San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900; e-mail, prasada@uthscsa.edu.

Author contributions are available at Annals.org.

References 1. Physicians Advocacy Institute. PAI-Avalere report on physician employment trends and acquisitions of medical practices: 2019 2023. Accessed at www.physiciansadvocacyinstitute.org/PAI Research/PAI-Avalere-Study-on-Physician-Employment-Practice Ownership-Trends-2019-2023 on 11 July 2024. 2. GilmanDJ. A competition perspective on physician non-compete agreements. Inquiry. 2024;61:469580241237621. [PMID: 38462909] doi:10.1177/00469580241237621 3. Federal Trade Commission. Non-Compete Clause Rule. Accessed at www.ftc.gov/legal-library/browse/rules/noncompete-rule on 11 July 2024. 4. Federal Trade Commission. FTC announces rule banning noncompetes. Accessed at www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press releases/2024/04/ftc-announces-rule-banning-noncompetes on 11 July 2024. 5. FiskCL. Working knowledge: trade secrets, restrictive covenants in employment, and the rise of corporate intellectual property, 1800-1920. Hastings Law Journal. 2001;52:441-535. 6. Loevinger L. The rule of reason in antitrust law. Section of Antitrust Law. 1961;19:245-251. 7. Stajduhar T. The high costs of hiring the wrong physician. NEJM Career Center. 2019;27:1-3. 8. Henry TA. What employed physicians should know about noncompete clauses. Accessed at www.ama-assn.org/medical residents/transition-resident-attending/what-employed-physicians should-know-about on 11 July 2024. 9. Lavetti K, Simon C, White WD. The impacts of restricting mobility of skilled service workers: evidence from physicians. J Hum Resour. 2020;55. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2439068 10. Marshall JJ, Ashwath ML, Jefferies JL, et al. Restrictive covenants and noncompete clauses for physicians. JACC Adv. 2023;2:100547. [PMID: 38939481] doi:10.1016/j.jacadv.2023.100547

74 Annals of Internal Medicine • Vol. 178 No. 1 • January 2025

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