xRead - Incorporating Artificial Intelligence into Clinical Practice (March 2026)

Ng et al. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making

(2025) 25:236

Page 5 of 24

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Study Software/Model Type of AI Model Study Design Clinical Setting Country Inpatient/ Outpatient evaluation Emergency Department (ED) USA Inpatient 47 Yes NLP Comparative evaluation France Inpatient 28 Yes Sam ple Size Zick et al., 2001 [9] Dragon NaturallySpeaking Medical Suite version 4.0​ ASR and NLP Comparative Happe et al., 2003 [10] Speech recognition : Naturally speaking 5 professional version IBM via voice 8 professional version Automatic indexing : Nomindex Mohr et al., 2003 [11] Table 1 Key study characteristics for studies included in this review Hospital medical reports of inpatients admitted for coronography. ASR RCT Endocrinology and Psychiatry USA Outpatient 3052 No

Issenman et al., 2004 [12] Dragon Naturally Speaking version 6 ASR Comparative evaluation Paediatric gastroenterology Canada Outpatient 72 No Almario et al., 2015​[13] Almario et al., 2015 [14] AEGIS NLP Cross-sectional Gastrointestinal clinics USA Outpatient 75 Yes Suominen et al., 2015 [15] Dragon Medical 11.0: ASR Comparative ob

Automated Evaluation of Gastrointestinal Symptoms (AEGIS) NLP Cross-sectional Gastrointestinal clinics USA Outpatient 75 Yes Speech recognition : Conditional random field model CRF: Probabi listic graphi cal model servational and Comparative experimental Synthetic dataset of hando ver records Australia Inpatient 101 No NLP RCT with a within subjects design Standardized clinical docu Australia Inpatient 35 No ASR Engines : ASR Systematic comparison

Simulated clinical scenarios likely seen in ambulatory primary care practice USA Outpatient 34 No

mentation likely seen in ED physicians

Domain (medical specialty) acoustic and language models were built on site using LTI model-building software provided by the vendor (Linguistics Technology, Inc, Edina, MN) Dragon Medical 11.0 Information extraction:

Nuance Dragon Medical 360 Network Edition UK (version 2.0, 12.51.200.072) SR software Bing Speech API (BING), Google Cloud Speech API (Google), IBM Speech to Text (IBM), Azure Media Indexer (MAVIS),

Azure Media Indexer 2 Preview (MAVIS v2), Nuance.SpeechAnywhere (Nuance), Amazon Transcribe Preview (Transcribe), Mozilla DeepSpeech (DeepSpeech)

NLP engines (used to extract clinical concepts) commercially available NLP service and open source NLP

service (CLiX NOTES, Clinithink, Bridgend CF31 1LH, UK) and biomedical annotator (​h​t​t​p​s​:​/​/​b​i​o​p​o​r​t​a​l​.​b​i​o​o​n​t​o​l​o​g​y​.​o​r​g​/​a​n​ n​o​t​a​t​o​r).

Hodgson et al., 2017 [16]

Kodish-Wachs et al., 2018​[17]