xRead - Incorporating Artificial Intelligence into Clinical Practice (March 2026)

Ng et al. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making

(2025) 25:236

Page 6 of 24

Ven

dor ini

tiated

Clinic UK Outpatient 8 Yes

Sam

ple

Size

USA Inpatient 669 No

Synthetic nursing handover data Australia Inpatient 301 Yes USA Mixed 245 No

Simulated primary care clini cal encounters Australia Outpatient 40 No ED and non-ED clinical notes Canada Mixed 107 No

Bundy et al., 2024 [23] DAX Copilot ASR, LLM, NLP Qualitative study Clinic USA Outpatient 12 Yes Cao et al., 2024 [24] Harbele et al., 2024 [25] DAX Copilot ASR, LLM, NLP Cohort study Clinic USA Outpatient 99 Yes

Dragon Ambient eXperience (DAX) ASR, LLM, NLP Pre-post evaluation Dermatology USA Outpatient 12 Yes

Islam et al., 2024 [26] Extended Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) NLP, RNN System evaluation Diabetes clinical visit Bangladesh Outpatient 102 Yes Liu et al., 2024 [27] DAX Copilot ASR, LLM, NLP Nonrandomized trial Clinic USA Outpatient 85 Yes Misurac et al., 2024 [28] Ambient Artificial Intelligence Tool NLP Controlled observational Patient-clinician conversa tions across multiple sub specialties (e.g. paediatrics, family medicine, internal medicine, O&G) USA Outpatient 38 No Owens et al., 2024 [29] DAX Copilot ASR, LLM, NLP Prospective obser vational study Primary care USA Outpatient 304 Yes Sezgin et al., 2024 [30] evaluation ED consultation calls USA Outpatient 100 No

Study Software/Model Type of AI Model Study Design Clinical Setting Country Inpatient/ Outpatient Lybarger et al., 2018 [18] Logistic re gression/CRF: Probabilistic graphical model Error detection and correction models Inpatient progress notes created by resident and

attending internal medicine physicians

Clinicians from Brigham

and Women’s Hospital were surveyed

Comparative evaluation

Goss et al., 2019 [20] Dragon Medical 360 ASR Controlled observational

Blackley et al., 2020 [21] Dragon Medical One ASR Controlled observational DeepSpeech: RNN Comparative evaluation

consultations

Zhou et al., 2018 [19] Trans_BBN Trans_I2B2 Transfer learning using CRF model

CMU Sphinx:

Hidden Mar

kov Model

Balloch et al., 2024 [4] TORTUS AI ASR, LLM Simulated

BART-Large-CNN, PEGASUS-PubMed, T5-small, T5-base ASR, NLP, LLM Comparative

Logistic regression was selected for the sentence-level edit detection model; the linear-chain continual random fields (CRF) modelling framework was selected for the word-level edit detection model Mozilla DeepSpeech CMU Sphinx

Table 1 (continued)

Van Woensel et al., 2022 [22]