FLEX February 2024

Pediatric Cervical Lymphadenopathy Michael S. Weinstock, MD,* † Neha A. Patel, MD,* Lee P. Smith, MD* *Cohen Children ’ s Medical Center, Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine, New Hyde Park, NY † Monte fi ore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY

Practice Gaps Pediatric cervical lymphadenopathy is a common disease entity, with multiple processes ranging from benign and self-resolving to malignant. The changing use of imaging modalities, including ultrasonography, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging, continues to alter the recommended diagnostic evaluation. This review provides a general outline of the differential diagnosis for cervical lymphadenopathy, with updates on the current data regarding imaging and biopsy modalities to guide practitioners on when lymphadenopathy is concerning enough to warrant further evaluation, and what that evaluation should entail.

Objectives After completing this article, readers should be able to:

1. Understand basic anatomical considerations when evaluating the pediatric population for cervical lymphadenopathy. 2. Develop a broad differential diagnosis, including the most common and most life-threatening causes of cervical lymphadenopathy. 3. Determine a reasonable diagnostic pathway for patients who present with acute, subacute, and chronic lymphadenopathy.

4. Initiate treatment for certain conditions when appropriate.

Abstract Cervical lymphadenopathy affects as many as 90% of children aged 4 to 8 years. With so many children presenting to doctors ’ of fi ces and emergency departments, a systematic approach to diagnosis and evaluation must be considered. In the following review, we aim to provide the pediatric clinician with a general framework for an appropriate history and physical examination, while giving guidance on initial diagnostic laboratory testing, imaging, and potential need for biopsy. The most common cause of cervical lymphadenopathy in the pediatric population is reactivity to known and unknown viral agents. The second most common cause includes bacterial infections ranging from aerobic to anaerobic to mycobacterial infections. Malignancies are the most concerning cause of cervical lymphadenopathy.

AUTHOR DISCLOSURE Drs Weinstock, Patel, and Smith have disclosed no fi nancial relationships relevant to this article. This commentary does not contain a discussion of an unapproved/investigative use of a commercial product/device. ABBREVIATIONS CMV cytomegalovirus CT computed tomography EBV Epstein-Barr virus FNA fi ne-needle aspiration HIV human immunode fi ciency virus MRI magnetic resonance imaging

Vol. 39 No. 9

433

SEPTEMBER 2018

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

The explosion in the use of ultrasonography as a nonradiating imaging modality in the pediatric population has changed the diagnostic algorithm for many clinicians. We aim to provide some clarity on the utility and shortcomings of the imaging modalities available, including ultrasonography, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging.

INTRODUCTION

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

Cervical lymphadenopathy is a strikingly common occurrence; estimates vary, but the incidence of lymphadenopathy in the pediatric population ranges from 62% in patients aged 3 weeks to 6 months to 41% in those 2 to 5 years old (1) to upwards of 90% of all children 4 to 8 years old. (2) A study by Larsson et al (3) estimated that approximately 40% of healthy children have palpable lymphadenopathy. Nearly every pediatric physician will encounter scores of patients with lymphadenopathy — in this article, we aim to provide practitioners with a review of the diagnostic and treatment modalities available. The most powerful, most cost-effective, and least invasive diagnostic tool available is the history and physical exami nation. Several questions will direct the differential diagno sis: 1) What is the duration of the lymphadenopathy? 2) Does the size fl uctuate? 3) Are there any concerning associated symptoms, including fever, weight loss, night sweats, easy bruisability, fatigue? 4) Has the patient attempted a treat ment of any type yet? If so, which antibiotics, etc? 5) Does the patient have any recent animal (eg, cats) or travel exposures? The physical examination should focus on the lymph chains of the head and neck. In general, they are divided into submental, submandibular, parotid, anterior cervical, pos terior cervical, and supraclavicular chains. The size and location of the lymph node and whether located unilaterally or bilaterally will direct the differential diagnosis, as well as the quality of the lymph node. Is it fi rm or matted, rubbery or soft, fl uctuant/ballotable, mobile or immobile, tender to palpation, warm, and/or erythematous? Are there overlying skin changes? The range of motion of the neck should also be noted. In terms of location, palpable supraclavicular nodes are the most likely to be malignant and should always be investigated. Posterior cervical lymph nodes drain the scalp and raise the differential diagnosis for mononucleosis. Submandibular lymphadenopathy is more likely to suggest mononucleosis or atypical mycobacterium. (4) HISTORY AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

Several key components exist in making the diagnosis of a patient who presents with cervical lymphadenopathy. It may be helpful to couch the discussion in terms of 1) what is most likely/most common, 2) what is most dangerous, and 3) what further diagnostic steps, if any, one should take to make a diagnosis. For a more complete list of the differential diagnosis of cervical lymphadenopathy, refer to the Table.

REACTIVE CERVICAL LYMPHADENOPATHY SECONDARY TO VIRAL INFECTION

The most common cause of cervical lymphadenopathy in the pediatric population is lymphadenopathy secondary to a viral infection. Because of lymphadenopathy ’ s in fl amma tory nature, it could also be termed lymphadenitis . Typically, patients will have a history of a viral prodrome. The reactive lymph node(s) may be tender to palpation and have a unilateral or bilateral location. Most importantly, the lymph adenopathy typically resolves with resolution of the viral illness. Common viruses, including rhinovirus, adenovirus, in fl uenza, parain fl uenza, and respiratory syncytial virus, may induce a self-resolving and uncomplicated cervical lymphadenopathy. Some other viral causes of cervical lymphadenopathy may present in an acute ( < 3 weeks), subacute (3 – 6weeks), or chronic ( > 6 weeks) manner. These causes include Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), causing mononucleosis, and cytomegalovirus (CMV), as well as human immunode fi ciency virus (HIV). Often, EBV and CMV present in a similar manner, with both producing acute to subacute periods of fatigue, fever, and tender, bilateral, often pos terior cervical lymphadenopathy. Often, EBV produces pharyngitis and a sore throat, whereas CMV rarely does. When patients have several of these symptoms, a mono spot test, with or without EBV antibody titers and CMV serologic assay, may be warranted to help with the diag nostic evaluation.

434

Pediatrics in Review

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

TABLE. Causes of Pediatric Cervical Lymphadenopathy

o Infectious n Reactive to viral antigens • Acute: Rhinovirus, adenovirus, in fl uenza, parain fl uenza, respiratory syncytial virus, others n Subacute or chronic: Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, human immunode fi ciency virus bacterial • Acute: Staphylococcus aureus , group A streptococcus • Neonates: Group B streptococcus • Rarely: Anaerobes • Subacute or chronic: Bartonella n Atypical mycobacterial and Mycobacterium tuberculosis n Fungal n Parasites o Congenital neck mass n Thyroglossal duct cyst, dermoid, branchial cleft, lymphovascular malformation, hemangioma, ectopic thymus o Malignancies n Lymphoma

n Rhabdosarcoma n Neuroblastoma o Metastasis (especially from nasopharyngeal and thyroid cancer) o Miscellaneous

n Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease n Rosai-Dorfman disease n Langerhans cell histiocytosis

n Kawasaki disease n Castleman disease

commonly isolated include Staphylococcus aureus andgroup B streptococcus (in neonates), group A streptococcus, and anaerobic infections. (5)(6) The history and physical exam ination fi ndings may point the clinician toward a diagnosis of acute bacterial lymphadenitis. In general, the timing of onset will be days to perhaps a week of fever with an enlarging neck swelling. On physical examination, the neck range of motion may be limited. Neck swelling may be fi rm and/or tender, with or without overlying erythema. Approximately 25% of patients with an abscess will be noted to have fl uctuance on physical examination. (7) Indu ration and immobility of the neck mass may also be present; if these fi ndings are present over a longer time course, the clinician should also be concerned about possible malig nancy. When differentiating between viral and bacterial lymphadenitis, it is important to remember that viral

HIV may also cause subacute/chronic reactive lymph adenopathy in the pediatric population. This will often be accompanied by a constellation of symptoms, including fever and fatigue, as well as a potential source for the infection. Viral lymphadenopathy, in general, will require sup portive care only. However, viral lymphadenopathy may develop into suppurative or bacterial lymphadenopathy over time. ACUTE BACTERIAL LYMPHADENITIS/SUPPURATIVE LYMPHADENITIS The second most common cause of lymphadenopathy in the pediatric population is secondary to a bacterial infection and could be termed lymphadenitis . The pathogens most

Vol. 39 No. 9

435

SEPTEMBER 2018

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

in an anatomical area requiring more detailed information (eg, deep to the sternocleidomastoid muscle), a computed tomographic (CT) scan or magnetic resonance image (MRI) with intravenous contrast will give more detailed informa tion. This is especially valuable if the differential diagnosis includes an infected branchial cleft anomaly or lymphatic malformation (Figs 1 and 2). An abscess smaller than 1 1 1 cm may not require surgical drainage. Some children with abscesses approxi mating 1.5 cm may also resolve on their own with a trial of antibiotics. Clinicians may consider a trial of 24 to 48 hours of intravenous antibiotics before incision and drainage for abscesses less than 1.5 to 2 cm if the child is clinically stable. If the location of the abscess is anatomically dif fi cult, or if the abscess is small but persistent, image-guided needle aspiration with or without drain placement may be appro priate, although recurrence rates are likely higher for needle drainage versus incision and drainage. Cultures should be taken to help direct the antibiotic regimen. When patients have an infectious process causing cervical lymphadenopathy occurring for 2 to 6 weeks it is considered a subacute infection; when that process occurs for more than 6 weeks it is considered chronic. Possible causes of these infections include a Bartonella infection causing cat scratch disease, toxoplasmosis, viral infections (eg, CMV, HIV), and mycobacterial infections. Of course, with pro longed lymphadenopathy, the possibility of a malignancy needs to be considered. Clinicians should never assume that all enlarged cervical lymph nodes are infectious in etiology. SUBACUTE OR CHRONIC LYMPHADENOPATHY

lymphadenitis self-resolves. If the patient does not begin to show resolution of infection within 4 to 7 days, the clinician should become concerned about the presence of either a primary bacterial lymphadenitis or a viral lymphadenitis that has become infected with bacteria. The treatment for suspected bacterial cervical lymph adenitis starts with appropriate antibiotic coverage. Pa tients may begin oral treatment with agents that cover for the most common pathogens ( S aureus , Streptococcus pyogenes , anaerobic pathogens). This may include clinda mycin, amoxicillin/clavulanate, or macrolides. If patients require intravenous antibiotics, the typical regimen starts with clindamycin or ampicillin/sulbactam. A combination of vancomycin and ceftriaxone can be used if the initial empirical regimen is insuf fi cient. A recent analysis of incision and drainage of acute suppurative bacterial cer vical lymphadenitis revealed that more than 54% of path ogens isolated were S aureus or S pyogenes (35.7% and 18.8%, respectively). Only 1% of isolates revealed anaer obes, and 2% revealed acid-fast bacilli. (8) Antibiotics alone may be able to treat many bacterial infections that result in cervical lymphadenitis. Large fl uc tuant or persistent cervical lymphadenitis that does not respond within 48 to 72 hours with systemic signs of infection should alert the clinician to the possibility of abscess formation. Clinicians may fi rst consider ultraso nography to evaluate for abscess formation. The speci fi city and sensitivity of ultrasonography for detecting abscess formation is user dependent and variable. However, the downside of a brief noninvasive examination with no radi ation exposure is minimal. If equivocal, or if the lymphad enitis is highly suspicious for abscess formation or present

Figure1. A 20-month-old girl presents with fever and tender lymphadenopathy. Ultrasonography shows a large complex collection measuring 4.0 2.6 3.0 cm, consistent with a suppurative lymph node.

436

Pediatrics in Review

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

Figure 2. A 20-month-old girl presents with a large lateral neck collection. T2-weighted axial and coronal magnetic resonance images show a 3.9 2.7 3.0-cm multiloculated neck abscess.

Scrofula, or Mycobacterium tuberculosis , may also be a cause of chronic cervical lymphadenopathy. Puri fi ed pro tein derivative skin testing and QuantiFERON-TB Gold (Qiagen, Valencia, CA) testing can be used make the diagnosis; FNA of the lymph node may also be attempted tocon fi rm the diagnosis. When in doubt, excisional biopsy of the node in question may be required. If positive, treatment will typically involve medical management. Although they may occur anywhere, these lesions are classically supraclavicular in location. Again, an incision and drainage procedure may result in a chronically drain ing fi stula. Fine-needle aspirate may also be helpful for diagnosis. Chronic infectious lymphadenopathy may also be caused by parasitic infections, the most common of which is toxoplasmosis. A common protozoan in cat feces and raw pork, Toxoplasma gondii may present with nontender, non suppurative lymphadenopathy. If toxoplasma infection is

Bartonella henselae causes a granulomatous infection, usually transmitted by the scratch or bite of a cat. It results in lymphadenopathy that may occur either immediately or several weeks after the injury. Many patients will have spontaneous resolution of symptoms without any antibi otics. The fi rst line of antibiotic treatment is azithromycin; however, clarithromycin, cipro fl oxacin, or sulfamethoxa zole/trimethoprim may be considered. If the patient does not improve with antibiotic therapy, surgical excision of the infected material can be undertaken. (9) Atypical mycobacterial infections cause indolent, chronic cervical lymphadenopathy, usually present in the subman dibular region of the neck. Children are often afebrile, and nodes are classically enlarged, nontender, indurated, and possibly fl uctuant. Often there is an overlying violaceous discoloration of the skin (Fig 3). Puri fi ed protein derivative skin testing may be weakly positive but will be negative in many cases of atypical mycobacterial infections. If an atyp ical mycobacterial infection is suspected, diagnosis may be con fi rmed with fi ne-needle aspiration (FNA). Treatment options are variable and controversial and range from medical therapy or surgical therapy alone to a combination of the two. Surgical treatment would usually involve com plete excision of the involved lymph node. Incision and drainage should be avoided because this may result in a chronically draining fi stula. Complete surgical excision results in a cure rate of more than 95% compared with medical therapy with a cure rate of only 66%. (10) If the involved lymph node cannot be safely excised (for instance due to the proximity of the facial nerve), surgeons can consider curettage of the affected tissue with observation and medical management (often with dual therapy of clar ithromycin and rifampin).

Figure3. A 4-year-old girl with an atypical mycobacterial infection. The overlying skin is violaceous and indurated.

Vol. 39 No. 9

437

SEPTEMBER 2018

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

suspected, polymerase chain reaction may be used to ana lyze blood samples for diagnostic purposes. It is treated with a combination of pyrimethamine, sulfadiazine, and leuco vorin initially. The infection typically resolves in 4 to 6 weeks. (11)

NONINFECTIOUS CAUSES OF CERVICAL LYMPHADENOPATHY IN CHILDREN

Although most cases of cervical lymphadenopathy in the pediatric population are caused by infectious pro cesses, cervical lymphadenopathy may be caused by other processes that can be confused with infectious cervical lymphadenopathy and are worth mentioning in this review.

MALIGNANCY

Patients with persistent cervical lymphadenopathy may present with either primary or metastatic malignancy. Before age 6 years, the most common malignancies are rhabdomyosarcoma and non-Hodgkin ’ s lymphoma. After age 6 years, the most common malignancy is Hodgkin lymphoma. (12) A history of night sweats, fatigue, fever, easy bleeding or bruising, and/or weight loss may point the clinician toward a possible malignant diagnosis. More common (although still very rare) metastatic disease to the neck in the pediatric population includes papillary thyroid cancer and nasopharyngeal cancer. Physical examination characteristics concerning for malignancy include fi rm, indurated masses that are matted down and often non tender to palpation. Bilateral nodes are less concerning than unilateral lymph nodes; in a recent study, none of the patients with bilateral nodes had concerning pathology, whereas up to 20% of patients with unilateral lymphade nopathy had concerning pathology. (13) However, unilat erality cannot necessarily be used as a reliable predictor of pathology. Niedzielska et al (14) found that up to 70% of patients with reactive nodal changes only had unilateral disease (Fig 4).

Figure4. Axial cut of a computed tomographic scan with contrast of an 8-year-old girl with papillary thyroid carcinoma. The 3 4-cm lymph node super fi cial to the great vessels in the right neck represents a regional metastasis of the disease.

should be treated with surgical excision. Preoperative ultrasonography to con fi rm the presence of a normal orthotopic thyroid gland should be performed before exci sion of a thyroglossal duct cyst to ensure that the thyro glossal duct cyst does not represent an ectopic thyroid gland. In the lateral neck, second branchial cleft cysts may present as a swelling deep to the sternocleidomas toid muscle that can be confused for lymphadenopathy. Screening ultrasonography may be performed. Com puted tomography or MRI is usually diagnostic. If there is uncertainty, FNA may be performed. Most second branchial cleft cysts are treated with complete surgical excision. Third branchial anomalies (or pyriform sinus anomalies) will usually present just off midline in the region of the thyroid gland, most often posterior to the left lobe of the thyroid gland. Computed tomography or MRI is usually diagnostic in these cases, and treatment usually requires surgery, during which time the surgeon may use an endo scopic technique to cauterize the pyriform sinus out fl ow tract. (15) An ectopic thymus can also present as a lateral neck mass. Ultrasonography is usually diagnostic and avoids unnecessary surgery. An FNA can be performed if the diagnosis is still in question.

CONGENITAL NECK MASSES

Congenital neck mass may be confused for lymphadenop athy. Midline neck masses are often not lymph nodes. These lesions are usually either thyroglossal duct cysts or dermoid cysts. Ultrasonography can be helpful to charac terize these lesions and differentiate them from lymph adenopathy. Most dermoid and thyroglossal duct cysts

438

Pediatrics in Review

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

NONINFECTIOUS CAUSES

submandibular and sublingual glands can also be confused with superior lymph nodes of the neck. The most likely salivary pathology in children is sialadenitis, the most common organism being S aureus . Treatment includes massage of the area with warm compress, antibiotic cover age for S aureus , sialagogues, and aggressive oral and possible intravenous hydration. If the diagnosis is in question or the practitioner is consid ering a malignancy as a possibility, or if the infectious/ in fl ammatory process in question may potentially require surgical intervention, such as abscess drainage, then imag ing is usually required. Ultrasonography may be conducted to further delineate the nature of the lymph node. Concerning features for malignancy on ultrasonography may include heterogeneity of the node, round shape (as opposed to oval shape), narrow or absent hilum, irregular borders, cystic necrosis, or ir regular blood fl ow patterns to the capsule. (21) An abscess may also be diagnosed using ultrasonography; in fl amma tory or reactive nodes may have increased vascularity, with or without central necrosis, and soft tissue in fl ammation adjacent to the node. (22) On ultrasonography, abscess collections typically have a characteristic “ swirling debris pattern ” when the probe is pressed against the collection. This diagnostic modality may be all that is required be fore incision and drainage of a super fi cial abscess. A CT scan may provide additional diagnostic informa tion. Furthermore, if surgical intervention is required for deeper lymph nodes, then a CT scan with contrast is helpful in surgical planning and diagnosis. Although the risk of radiation exposure from a CT scan is low, physicians should be judicious in use of CT. An MRI provides similar information as a CT scan without the radi ation exposure; however, MRI is more time-consuming and more likely to require sedation for young children. Furthermore, it may be a challenge to obtain MRI in a timely manner at many centers. For these reasons, we would advocate for judicious use of both CT and MRI. In general, these studies should be obtained when surgical management is being explored. In many uncomplicated cases of bacterial cervical lymphadenitis, physical exami nation with or without ultrasonography may be all that is required before initiation of a course of antibiotics. If the child does not respond after 24 to 72 hours of antibiotic treatment, then it may be appropriate to obtain a CTscan or an MRI in preparation for possible surgical intervention (Fig 5). IMAGING

Several disease processes that are not congenital, infec tious, or malignant may cause cervical lymphadenopathy. Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease (or histiocytic necrotizing lymph adenitis) is a benign, self-limited disease characterized by tender cervical lymphadenopathy with night sweats as well as general malaise and sore throat, nausea, and vomiting. The diagnosis is usually made by incisional or excisional biopsy. It is a self-resolving disease, with com plete resolution of symptoms in 1 to 3 months. (16) The onset of symptoms is typically in the subacute range, with approximately 2 to 4 weeks of cervical tenderness, and the disease is most frequently found in young Japanese women. Rosai-Dorfman disease, also known as non – Langerhans cell histiocytosis, and Langerhans cell histiocytosis are lymphoproliferative disorders that can also affect chil dren. Patients with Rosai-Dorfman disease classically present with bilateral painless lymphadenopathy, fever, and abnormal laboratory fi ndings including an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate. (17) These lesions require biopsy to con fi rm the diagnosis. Langerhans cell histio cytosis is characterized by an accumulation of Langer hans cells in the lymph nodes, with a diagnosis made on biopsy. (18) Kawasaki disease may also present with tender cervi cal lymphadenopathy, as this is 1 of the 5 major fi ndings required to diagnose Kawasaki disease, the other criteria including edema and peeling of the extremities, polymor phous exanthem, conjunctival injection, lip cracking, and strawberry tongue, in addition to fever for more than 5 days. (19) Castleman disease is another rare lymphoproliferative disorder that can present with tender cervical lymphade nopathy. Patients often experience fever, night sweats, fatigue, and cachexia with 2 to 4 weeks of subacute cervical lymphadenopathy. The disease is characterized by exces sive growth of B lymphocytes and plasma cells. It typi cally resolves on its own, although new immunotherapies have also helped in refractory cases. (20) PAROTID, SUBMANDIBULAR, AND SUBLINGUAL GLAND PATHOLOGY Salivary gland pathology may also be confused with cervi cal lymphadenopathy. The tail of the parotid gland dips posterior and sometimes inferior to the angle of the man dible, which may confuse the location with cervical lymph nodes located in the upper jugular area of the neck. The

Vol. 39 No. 9

439

SEPTEMBER 2018

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

interventions to ascertain a diagnosis, (27) and up to 39% of patients who undergo FNA biopsy still require further surgery for diagnosis. More importantly, FNA in young children typically requires sedation. (28) Although the com plication rate of FNA is minimal, the ability to obtain a quality biopsy may be limited in the pediatric population. However, physicians should not hesitate to perform FNA biopsy in older children who are cooperative because this may often be performed without sedation and with minimal risk. Although open excisional biopsy remains the gold stan dard in diagnosing persistent, worrisome lymphadenop athy, the procedure should not be undertaken lightly. Connolly and MacKenzie (29) reported complication rates of 11% in 360 patients who underwent open biopsy and excision of neck masses. lymphadenopathy in the pediatric population is reactivity to viral antigens. Subacute or chronic lymphadenopathy with accompanying symptoms such as malaise, sore throat, and fatigue should be evaluated for possible Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, or even human immunode fi ciency virus. • Based on clinical evidence, ultrasonography may be a useful initial diagnostic modality. (20)(21) Sensitivity and speci fi city are user and institution dependent. If there is a concern for an abscess formation in an anatomically sensitive area, computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging with intravenous contrast should be used to better delineate the anatomy. • Based on expert and consensus opinion, a trial of 24 to 48 hours of intravenous antibiotics may be initiated for patients with small abscess formation ( < 1 – 1.5 cm in the largest dimension) because many of these patients will respond without incision and drainage. • Abscess formation in the subacute/chronic presentation of cervical lymphadenopathy raises the concern for mycobacterial infection, Bartonella , or protozoan infection such as toxoplasmosis. • Based on clinical evidence, cervical lymphadenopathy may also be caused by malignancy, although this is rare in the pediatric population. (11)(12)(13) • Congenital neck masses, such as branchial arch abnormalities, and dermoid and thyroglossal duct cysts may masquerade as cervical lymphadenopathy. Imaging, coupled with history and physical examination, often helps to differentiate these from infectious or malignant causes. Summary • The most common etiology for acute cervical

An MRI may be preferred over a CT scan to further evaluate the lymphadenopathy if a malignancy is suspected. An MRI generally provides better resolution of soft tissue and nerve involvement, so if the practitioner suspects pos sible rhabdomyosarcoma or neuroblastoma then an MRI may be more useful than a CT scan. Mediastinal lymph adenopathy, diagnosed on chest radiography, has been observed in 56% of malignant cases but only 2.6% of benign cases. (23) Patients who continue to have persistent symptoms for more than 4 to 6 weeks despite appropriate therapies may require tissue diagnosis. Patients with history, physical examination, or imaging fi ndings consistent with malig nancy should obtain a timely tissue diagnosis. The gold standard for tissue diagnosis has been exci sional biopsy. Biopsy should be considered for the following reasons: 1) suspicion of malignancy, 2) if the patient does not have resolution of lymphadenopathy over 4 to 6 weeks, 3) lymphadenopathy that steadily increases in size over 2 to 3 weeks, 4) lymphadenopathy greater than 2.0 cm, or 5) multiple lymph nodes that have concerning features on ultrasonography or CT. (24)(25) An FNA biopsy has been shown to have sensitivity of 86% and speci fi city of 96%. (26) Unfortunately, FNA has several limitations. Up to 20% of FNA biopsy results are nondiagnostic, requiring further Figure5. An 8-year-old girl with 6 days of right neck pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting was found to have a suppurative bacterial lymphadenopathy that extended into her mediastinum, requiring surgical drainage. Coronal computed tomographic scan with intravenous contrast shows the multiloculated abscess extending from the right neck and into the mediastinum. BIOPSY VERSUS FNA?

440

Pediatrics in Review

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

• Salivary gland pathology may also present as a cervical neck mass or possible lymphadenopathy. • Noninfectious causes of lymphadenopathy should also be considered in the case of subacute or chronic lymphadenopathy. • Based on strong clinical evidence and expert opinion, biopsy of lymphadenopathy should be undertaken if there is a suspicion for malignancy, subacute/chronic lymphadenopathy, worsening lymphadenopathy despite appropriate treatment, persistent lymph nodes larger than 2 cm, or multiple lymph nodes with concerning features on computed tomography, ultrasonography, or magnetic resonance imaging. (23)(24) • Based on clinical evidence and expert opinion, fi ne-needle aspiration should be considered as a diagnostic tool in patients requiring biopsy as long as they are able to tolerate the procedure under local anesthesia. (26)(27)

To view teaching slides that accompany this article, visit http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/ content/39/9/433.supplemental.

References for this article are at http://pedsinreview.aappubli cations.org/content/39/9/433 .

Vol. 39 No. 9

441

SEPTEMBER 2018

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

PIRQuiz

There are two ways to access the journal CME quizzes: 1. Individual CME quizzes are available via a handy blue CME link under the article title in the Table of Contents of any issue. 2. To access all CME articles, click “ Journal CME ” from Gateway ’ s orange main menu or go directly to: http://www.aappublications. org/content/journal-cme. 3. To learn how to claim MOC points, go to: http://www.aappublications.org/content/moc-credit. 1. A 2-year-old boy is brought to the of fi ce with swelling on the right side of the neck. He was noted to have a runny nose, fever, and a cough 7 days earlier, which are improving. The mother noted swelling on the right side of the neck 3 days earlier and states that the child is complaining of discomfort in the area of the swelling. On physical examination his temperature is 100.4°F (38°C), heart rate is 100 beats/min, and respiratory rate is 24 breaths/min. There is a 1 1.5-cm palpable lymph node in the right anterior cervical chain that is mildly tender but movable and with no overlying tenderness, erythema, or warmth. Nasal congestion is seen. The remainder of the physical examination fi ndings are normal. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in management of this patient? A. Chest radiograph. B. Fine-needle aspiration of the lymph node. C. Monospot test. D. Reassurance. E. Ultrasonography of the neck. 2. A 15-year-old girl is brought to the of fi ce with a sore throat, dif fi culty swallowing, fatigue, and persistent fever for the past 5 days. In the past 2 days she has noted increased fatigue and swollen lymph nodes in the neck. On physical examination the patient appears ill and tired. Her temperature is 101.3°F (38.5 o C), respiratory rate is 18 breaths/min, and heart rate is 80 beats/min. Her oropharynx is injected with enlarged tonsils and a white exudate. Her breath is foul. Her neck shows multiple lymph nodes in the posterior cervical chain ranging in size from 0.5 to 1.5 cm in diameter. There is mild overlying tenderness. The scalp has no lesions. Examination of the heart and lungs is normal. The spleen is palpable 2 cm below the left costal margin, and the liver is not palpable. Laboratory data are as follows: white blood cell count, 15,000/ m L (15 10 9 /L); hemoglobin, 13 g/dL (130 g/L); hematocrit, 42%; platelet count, 300 10 3 / m L (300 10 9 /L); mean corpuscular volume, 84 m m 3 (84 fL); neutrophils, 25%; bands, 2%; monocytes, 5%; lymphocytes, 50%; atypical lymphocytes, 18%; alanine aminotransferase, 100 U/L (1.67 m kat/L) (reference range, 7 – 56 U/L [0.12 – 0.94 µ kat/L]); aspartate aminotransferase, 80 U/L (1.34 m kat/L) (reference range, 10 – 40 U/L [0.17 – 0.67 µ kat/L]); total bilirubin, 1.5 mg/dL (25.66 m mol/L); and rapid streptococcal antigen negative. Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis in this patient? A. Acute lymphocytic leukemia. B. Atypical mycobacterium. C. Cat-scratch disease. 3. A 3-year-old boy is brought to the emergency department with a red swollen area on the left side of the neck. The child had an upper respiratory tract infection 1 week earlier with fever and a cough. At that time the mother noted a small “ swollen ” area on the left side of the neck. The initial fever resolved, but over the past 2 days the fever recurred, and the swelling has gotten larger, more red, and painful. On physical examination his temperature is 101.1°F (38.4°C), respiratory rate is 18 breaths/min, and heart rate is 110 beats/min. A 2 2-cm red, warm, and tender lymph node is noted in the left anterior cervical chain. The node is rubbery, movable, and non fl uctuant. The oropharynx shows mild erythema with no exudates and with normal-sized tonsils. The remainder of the physical examination fi ndings are normal. Which of the following is the most appropriate next step in the management of this patient? D. Epstein-Barr virus infection. E. Streptococcal pharyngitis.

REQUIREMENTS: Learners can take Pediatrics in Review quizzes and claim credit online only at: http:// pedsinreview.org. To successfully complete 2018 Pediatrics in Review articles for AMA PRA Category 1 Credit TM , learners must demonstrate a minimum performance level of 60% or higher on this assessment. If you score less than 60% on the assessment, you will be given additional opportunities to answer questions until an overall 60% or greater score is achieved. This journal-based CME activity is available through Dec. 31, 2020, however, credit will be recorded in the year in which the learner completes the quiz. 2018 Pediatrics in Review now is approved for a total of 30 Maintenance of Certi fi cation (MOC) Part 2 credits by the American Board of Pediatrics through the AAP MOC Portfolio Program. Complete the fi rst 10 issues or a total of 30 quizzes of journal CME credits, achieve a 60% passing score on each, and start claiming MOC credits as early as October 2018. To learn how to claim MOC points, go to: http://www.aappublications. org/content/moc-credit.

442

Pediatrics in Review

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

A. Computed tomography of the chest. B. Excisional biopsy. C. Incision and drainage of the node. D. Oral antibiotics. E. Ultrasonography of the neck.

4. A 12-year-old girl is brought to the of fi ce with increasing swelling above the left collar bone. She was well until 8 weeks ago when she developed a small swelling in the left lower cervical area. She was seen at an urgent care center and was treated with oral amoxicillin. The swelling did not resolve, and 4 weeks ago she was seen for follow-up in the of fi ce of her primary care provider and received a course of clindamycin. The swelling continued and is now extending above the left clavicle. The area is nontender with mild redness. She has been more tired than usual but has had no night sweats. She does not think she has lost weight. She has not had a fever since the initial presentation 8 weeks ago, when she was warm to the touch. She has no history of foreign travel and no exposure to pets or populations at risk for tuberculosis. On physical examination her weight is at the 40th percentile (was the 45th percentile at the time of her last health supervision visit 6 months ago). Her height is at the 50th percentile. Her temperature is 100.0°F (37.8°C), respiratory rate is 16 breaths/min, and heart rate is 80 beats/min. The oral cavity is normal. The neck shows a 2.5 3-cm fi rm, nontender, fi xed, and nonerythematous node in the left supraclavicular area. Several smaller nodes 1.5 1 cmand1 1 cm are noted in the left cervical chain. There are no thyroid nodules detected. The axilla and inguinal areas have no palpable lymph nodes. The remainder of the physical examination fi ndings are normal. Results of laboratory studies (including complete blood cell count), metabolic pro fi le, and chest radiography are normal. Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis in this patient? A. Hodgkin lymphoma. B. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma. C. Neuroblastoma. 5. A 5-year-old boy is brought to the of fi ce by his parents due to a swelling on his neck. The mother noted this several months ago. The swelling got bigger initially but has remained the same size for the past 8 weeks. The swelling is located in the middle of his neck and moves when he sticks his tongue out. The area has occasionally been red. On physical examination a 2-cm-diameter soft mass is noted on the middle of the neck just superior to the larynx. There are no lymph nodes palpable in the cervical, supraclavicular, or axillary areas. The remainder of the physical examination fi ndings are normal. Ultrasonography of the neck shows a normal-appearing thyroid gland with a cystic structure in the midline just superior to the larynx. A thyroid uptake scan shows a normal-appearing thyroid gland. Which of the following is the most appropriate management plan of this lesion in this patient? A. Fine-needle aspiration. B. I 131 radioablation. D. Rhabdomyosarcoma. E. Thyroid carcinoma.

C. Levothyroxine. D. Propylthiouracil. E. Surgical excision.

Vol. 39 No. 9

443

SEPTEMBER 2018

Downloaded from http://publications.aap.org/pediatricsinreview/article-pdf/39/9/433/826279/pedsinreview_20170249.pdf by Univ Of Pittsburgh / UPMC user on 20 December 2023

Imaging of Pediatric Head and Neck Masses

a,b, *, Daniel T. Ginat,

c ,

Jessica S. Stern, MD

MD, MS

a,b , Maura E. Ryan,

a,b

Jennifer L. Nicholas, MD, M.H.A

MD

KEYWORDS Imaging Pediatrics Head and neck masses

KEY POINTS

Ultrasound is often the initial imaging examination for evaluation of pediatric neck masses. Doppler interrogation is useful for evaluating vascularity. MRI and CT are complementary modalities, particularly in evaluating the deep cervical structures. CT is helpful in evaluating infectious and inflammatory processes, as well as in providing information regarding calcification. MRI is useful in characterization of soft tissue lesions, and evaluation of enhancement characteristics. Minimizing the risks of radiation and sedation must be considered in the imaging work up of a pediatric neck mass.

INTRODUCTION

Imaging is often an essential component in evaluating pediatric neck masses and can be helpful in characterizing congenital, inflammatory, vascular, and neoplastic le sions. 1 In some cases, characteristic imaging appearances can be diagnostic. In other instances, imaging may not yield a definitive diagnosis, but can be helpful in narrowing the differential diagnosis, defining lesion extent, assessment for metastatic disease, and in follow-up evaluation for treatment response or recurrence. Imaging workup must consider the risks and benefits associated with various modalities, particularly the risks of sedation and radiation. Ultrasound is typically the initial imaging performed for evaluation of a palpable pediatric neck mass as it utilizes no radiation, requires no sedation or intravenous contrast, is easily accessible, and is a Department of Medical Imaging, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago, North western University, 225 East Chicago Avenue, Box 9, Chicago, IL 60611, USA; b Department of Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; c Department of Radiology, Pritzker School of Medicine, University of Chicago Medical Center, 5841 S. Maryland Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637, USA * Department of Medical Imaging, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago, North western University, 225 East Chicago Avenue, Box 9, Chicago, IL 60611. E-mail address: JStern@luriechildrens.org

Otolaryngol Clin N Am 48 (2015) 225–246 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2014.09.015

oto.theclinics.com

0030-6665/15/$ – see front matter 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Downloaded for Anonymous User (n/a) at STANFORD UNIVERSITY from ClinicalKey.com by Elsevier on January 02, 2024. For personal use only. No other uses without permission. Copyright ©2024. Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Stern et al

226

relatively low in cost. Ultrasound can provide information about lesion size, location, cystic or solid nature; additionally, it can assess for vascular flow with Doppler inter rogation. Cross-sectional imaging with multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) and MRI may be required for further assessment, particularly when the deeper cervical soft tissues are involved. MRI and CT have complimentary roles in lesion characteriza tion and assessment of extent of disease. 2 However, both these modalities often require intravenous (IV) contrast, sedation in younger children, and with CT, exposure to radiation.

IMAGING TECHNIQUES Ultrasound

Ultrasound of the pediatric neck is usually performed with the patient in the supine position, with his or her neck extended. A high-frequency linear transducer provides good resolution of superficial structures and is therefore useful for evaluation of most palpable masses in the pediatric neck. Ample ultrasound gel and/or a stand off pad may improve visualization of lesions very close to the surface. Doppler imaging provides visualization of arterial and venous flow, and can be used to evaluate the presence and distribution of flow within a mass. The examination should also include assessment of the submandibular, parotid, and thyroid glands, when indicated. Identifying a normal thyroid gland is important in the preoperative workup of some congenital neck masses such as thyroglossal duct cyst or ectopic thyroid. 3 One of the primary advantages of ultrasound is its ability to distinguish between solid and cystic masses. Simple cystic masses are anechoic (ie, nearly black) and demonstrate posterior acoustic enhancement. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as increased through transmission, making the tissues behind the cyst appear brighter than the adjacent soft tissues due to the increased velocity of sound waves through fluid in the cyst relative to soft tissues. However, complex cystic masses with internal debris or hemorrhage may have more intermediate echogenicity, and may approximate the echogenicity of soft tissue. Doppler interrogation can also help distinguish cysts, which should not demonstrate internal flow, from solid lesions or vessels. Doppler imaging can also elucidate how flow is distributed within a mass (centrally, peripherally, or evenly throughout), and whether the flow is normal, increased, or decreased, all which may have diagnostic significance. Ultrasound is also practical for evaluating palpable lymph nodes. Normal lymph nodes are typically ovoid to reniform in shape, are slightly hypoechoic when compared to the surrounding soft tissues with a hyperechoic region that represents the fatty hilum of the lymph node. On color Doppler interrogation, there is flow in normal lymph nodes, which is relatively increased near the hilum. Reactive lymph nodes are typically less than 1 cm in greatest diameter (short:long ratio <0.5). 4 In the pediatric population, however, lymph node morphology and clinical course are also important considerations ( Fig. 1 ). On ultrasound, malignant lymph nodes may be increased in size (>1–1.5 cm in greatest diameter) and may have lost their characteristic reniform shape, appearing more round in morphology. Malignant lymph nodes may show decreased internal echogenicity with loss of the echogenic fatty hilum. 5 Size alone cannot be used as a reliable criterion for distinguishing benign from reactive lymph nodes in children, but there is an increased risk of malignancy in lymph nodes measuring more than 3 cm in longest diameter. 6,7 Evaluation with a high-frequency linear transducer may reveal internal reticulation. 8 Findings suspicious for malignant infiltration of lymph nodes on color and power Doppler imaging include the presence of peripheral, subcapsular vessels with distortion or displacement of the intranodal vessels and focal areas of

Downloaded for Anonymous User (n/a) at STANFORD UNIVERSITY from ClinicalKey.com by Elsevier on January 02, 2024. For personal use only. No other uses without permission. Copyright ©2024. Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Imaging of Pediatric Head and Neck Masses

227

absent perfusion. 1,2,9 Any or all of these characteristics warrant consideration of fine needle aspiration (FNA) or biopsy ( Fig. 2 ). Necrosing lymph nodes tend to become increasingly hypoechoic and may initially show increased flow, but central flow may become decreased as the lymph node becomes more necrotic. As the lymph node degenerates to an abscess, the node becomes more anechoic centrally and can develop a hyperechoic rind that typically demonstrates increased flow. As the necrotic lymph node becomes more liquid in composition, there may be posterior acoustic enhancement/increased through trans mission, as is seen in cysts. Although an excellent screening tool, there are several limitations of ultrasound imaging. Deep structures of the neck, particularly the retropharyngeal soft tissues, are not well-visualized with ultrasound. The short length of the neck in infants and toddlers can present technical challenges for the sonographer, and patient motion can also make the acquisition of diagnostic-quality images challenging. As image Fig. 1. Normal lymph node on ultrasound. The image on the left demonstrates a normal reniform lymph node, with a central area of hyperechogenicity representing the fatty hilum. Color Doppler interrogation is shown in the image on the right, demonstrating vascular flow in the region of the hilum.

Fig. 2. Lymph node metastasis from papillary thyroid carcinoma on ultrasound.

Downloaded for Anonymous User (n/a) at STANFORD UNIVERSITY from ClinicalKey.com by Elsevier on January 02, 2024. For personal use only. No other uses without permission. Copyright ©2024. Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Stern et al

228

quality is highly dependent on sonographic technique, ultrasound is best performed by sonographers with experience scanning children, and may require the interpreting physician to be present during at least part of the examination. Ultrasound is also limited in its ability to accurately diagnosis the specific histology of masses in children by imaging characteristics alone. There is overlap in the imaging features of many congenital and acquired lesions. For example, complex, previously infected thyroglossal duct cysts may demonstrate heterogenous or intermediate echogenicity mimicking other midline lesions such as dermoid cysts (most commonly), epidermal inclusion cysts, vellus hair cysts, lymph nodes, or scar tissue ( Fig. 3 ). 10 Although calcifications may be readily identified on ultrasound by characteristic posterior acoustic shadowing, ultrasound does not visualize bony structures well. Also, as a result of posterior acoustic shadowing, which occurs because sound waves cannot penetrate calcifications, evaluation of structures deep to large calcifications is limited. Computed Tomography MDCT should be performed helically with acquisition of images in the axial plane in soft tissue and bone algorithms, and reconstructions in coronal and sagittal planes. The technique should be optimized to provide the lowest radiation dose possible while acquiring diagnostic quality images, according to the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) principle, utilizing age-stratified pediatric protocols. Intravenous contrast

Fig. 3. Transverse ultrasound images of midline neck masses in 4 different children, all of whom had a normal thyroid gland. All 4 of these lesions were surgically removed. ( A – C ) Pathology-proven thyroglossal duct cysts. ( D ) Dermoid cyst.

Downloaded for Anonymous User (n/a) at STANFORD UNIVERSITY from ClinicalKey.com by Elsevier on January 02, 2024. For personal use only. No other uses without permission. Copyright ©2024. Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.